Aristotle's On Interpretation Ch. 7. segment 17a37-17b1: Drawing the line between particulars and universals
(17a37-17b1) of Ch. 7: Drawing the line between particulars and universals
Out of the sum of all things (πράγματα) as they present themselves to us in the world , Aristotle differentiates between (i) those he describes as particulars (τὰ καθ' ἕκαστον), and (ii) those he views as universals (τὰ καθόλου).
(i) For Aristotle, a particular is what presents itself to us as a singular isolated thing. The atomised way in which we conceive of a particular precludes us from predicating it of many subjects. To provide an example, we may think here of a single person such as the philosopher Socrates or a characteristic unique to him such as the particular way in which he is virtuous (as opposed to how Heracles is virtuous, for example).
(ii) On the other hand, a universal is what presents itself to us insofar as we find it instantiated across many particulars. As such, as Aristotle notes, we conceive of a universal as something we may predicate of more than one subject. Being a human, for instance, is not a thing we limit to Socrates. Instead, we extend it to all the members of our species. We may predicate “human” of Socrates as well as of any other person (e.g. Nicomachus is a human). Similarly, Socrates is not the only one who is virtuous. We may qualify any human as “virtuous” who we recognise as having virtue (e.g. Nicomachus is virtuous).
All in all, Aristotle introduces this distinction to prompt us to reflect on how we perceive, conceptualise and communicate about things as they present themselves to us.
When we look at the picture below, for example, we at once notice how each of the bronze sculptures is distinct and has an appearance particular to it. At the same time, we also perceive things which all or some of these sculptures have in common. We may thus choose to talk about each of these sculptures in seperation or we may talk about things which apply to all or some of them. This is exactly what Aristotle plans to elaborate on next.
Key points: (i) Aristotle introduces the distinction between particulars and universals to prompt us to reflect on how we perceive, conceptualise and communicate about things as they present themselves to us. (ii) A particular is what presents itself to us as a singular isolated thing. The atomised way in which we conceive of a particular precludes us from predicating it of many subjects. A particular can be an individual person such as Socrates, a particular horse and so on. (iii) A universal is what presents itself to us insofar as we find it instantiated across many particulars. Among many other things, we may here count colours such as red or blue or species such as human or ostrich.